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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">SATNT</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Natuurwetenskap en Tegnologie</journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">0254-3486</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2222-4173</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>AOSIS</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">SATNT-36-1438</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.4102/satnt.v36i1.1438</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Oorspronkike Navorsing</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Kontinu&#x00EF;teit en diskontinu&#x00EF;teit in die fisika en biologie</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2397-9181</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>Strauss</surname>
<given-names>Danie F.M.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="AF0001">1</xref>
</contrib>
<aff id="AF0001"><label>1</label>Department of Philosophy, North-West University, South Africa</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="cor1"><bold>Corresponding author:</bold> Danie Strauss, <email xlink:href="dfms@cknet.co.za">dfms@cknet.co.za</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>24</day><month>07</month><year>2017</year></pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2017</year></pub-date>
<volume>36</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<elocation-id>1438</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received"><day>09</day><month>02</month><year>2017</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted"><day>05</day><month>06</month><year>2017</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2017. The Authors</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2017</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/">
<license-p>Licensee: AOSIS. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License.</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<p>Hoewel die mening van die klassieke fisici was dat die natuur geen spronge maak nie &#x2013; dit is kontinu en oneindig verder verdeelbaar &#x2013; sou die 20ste-eeuse fisici spoedig besef dat daar ondeelbare element&#x00EA;re deeltjies (kwanta) bestaan en dat die fisiese ruimte nie kontinu en derhalwe ook nie oneindig verder verdeelbaar is nie. Hierdie toedrag van sake word verder belig deur die dualiteit van golf en deeltjies. Selfs vir Einstein was die kontinu&#x00EF;teit van die mikrostruktuur van &#x2018;space-time&#x2019; nog &#x2019;n ope vraag. Daarom kan die siening dat fisiese verskynsels letterlik kontinu is, bevraagteken word. Dit is daarom treffend dat die geskiedenis van die nadenke oor die aard van materie sowel tot &#x2019;n &#x2018;atomisitese&#x2019; as &#x2019;n &#x2018;kontinu&#x00EF;teitsopvatting&#x2019; gelei het. Getrou aan die moderne nominalisme aanvaar die (neo-) Darwinisme geen universaliteit buite die menslike gees nie. Plante en diere word bloot met behulp van willekeurige name in &#x2019;n kontinuum geplaas. Hierdie kontinu&#x00EF;teitspostulaat &#x2013; bekend as &#x2018;gradualisme&#x2019; &#x2013; is egter van meet af gekonfronteer deur die dominante stasispatroon van die paleontologiese rekord: &#x2019;n tipe verskyn abrup, bly vir miljoene jare konstant en verdwyn dan ewe abrup. Gevolglik kan die vermeende &#x2018;imperfection&#x2019; van die paleontologiese rekord bevraagteken word. Prominente biologiese denkers worstel met die probleem van kontinu&#x00EF;teit en diskontinu&#x00EF;teit. Een van hierdie outeurs stel dat die verhale met dieselfde grondleggende valstrik begin en dan voortgaan op &#x2019;n soortgelyke foutiewe wyse. Daar word begin met die gevaarlikste mentale valstrik, die verborge aanname wat as vanselfsprekend aanvaar word, indien dit hoegenaamd erken word, naamlik &#x2019;n basiese definisie van evolusie as kontinue vloei.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<p><bold>Continuity and discontinuity in physics and biology.</bold> Although classical physicists believed that nature does not make leaps &#x2013; it is continuous and infinitely divisible &#x2013; 20th century physicists soon realised that there are indivisible elementary particles (quanta) and that physical space is therefore not continuous and also not infinitely divisible. This state of affairs is also underscored by the duality of particle and wave. Even for Einstein the continuity of the microstructure of &#x2018;space-time&#x2019; was still an open question. Therefore considering physical phenomena as literally continuous could be questioned. Moreover it is striking that reflection on the nature of matter gave birth both to an &#x2018;atomistic&#x2019; and a &#x2018;continuity&#x2019; conception. Faithful to modern nominalism (neo-)Darwinism accepts no universality outside the human mind. Plants and animals are simply positioned in a continuum with the aid of arbitrary names. This continuity postulate &#x2013; known as &#x2018;gradualism&#x2019; &#x2013; is, nonetheless, confronted from the outset with the dominant stasis pattern of the paleontological record: a type appears abruptly, remains constant for millions of years and then disappears equally abruptly. As a consequence the assumed &#x2018;imperfection&#x2019; of the fossil record could be questioned. Prominent biological thinkers still wrestle with the problem of continuity and discontinuity. One of them explains that these stories begin from the same foundational fallacy and then proceed in an identically erroneous way. They start with the most dangerous of mental traps: a hidden assumption, depicted as self-evident, if recognised at all, namely, a basic definition of evolution as continuous flux.</p>
</trans-abstract>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec id="s0001">
<title>Ori&#x00EB;nterende opmerking</title>
<p>Uit die ontleding van die wisselende rol van diskontinu&#x00EF;teit en kontinu&#x00EF;teit in die (geskiedenis van die) filosofie en die wiskunde het dit geblyk dat getal en ruimte (diskreetheid en kontinu&#x00EF;teit) unieke, maar tegelyk wederkerig samehangende verklaringswyses aan teoretiese denke bied. In hierdie artikel word ewe seer by die stand van sake in die fisika en biologie, asook die geskiedenis van hierdie twee vakwetenskappe, stilgestaan. Die bedoeling is nie alleen om aan te toon dat die aard van kontinu&#x00EF;teit en diskontinu&#x00EF;teit onvermydelik &#x2019;n rol in die fisika en biologie as vakwetenskappe vervul nie, maar om ook aan te toon dat die verhouding tussen kontinu&#x00EF;teit en diskontinu&#x00EF;teit uiteenlopend beklemtoon word wanneer gelet word op verskillende denkrigtings in hierdie akademiese dissiplines.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="s0002">
<title>Die fisika</title>
<p>Die relasie tussen kontinu&#x00EF;teit en diskontinu&#x00EF;teit (diskreetheid) het nie alleen &#x2019;n sleutelrol in die geskiedenis van die filosofie en wiskunde gespeel nie, want dit het ook in die fisika en biologie deurgewerk. Tereg merk Fraenkel et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0016">1973</xref>) op dat:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>[T]hough the arguments have changed, the gap between discrete and continuous is again the weak spot &#x2013; an eternal point of least resistance and at the same time of overwhelming scientific importance in mathematics, philosophy, and even physics. (pp. 212&#x2013;213)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Longo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0027">2001</xref>) vind hierdie twee tendense ook in die fisika:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Physics is also torn between these two tendencies. [O]n one hand it makes sense to say that every process should be continuous, or even two times differentiable. On the other hand we could affirm that the world is discrete: think about the atoms, the elementary particles, the quanta. Even within qauntum mechanics, where we might expect to find only discrete representations, we find the two schools. (p. 19)<xref ref-type="fn" rid="FN0001"><sup>1</sup></xref></p>
</disp-quote>
</sec>
<sec id="s0003">
<title>Leef ons in &#x2019;n ruimte-tydkontinuum?</title>
<p>Die algemeen bekende opmerking dat ons in &#x2019;n &#x2018;<italic>space-time continuum</italic>&#x2019; leef, is problematies, want enersyds verwys dit na wiskundige opvattinge oor kontinu&#x00EF;teit en andersyds na die diskrete kant van die fisiese werklikheid. Maddy vermeld hierdie onderskeiding implisiet:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>But it is also true that the appearance of, say, a continuous manifold in our best description of space-time does not seem to be regarded as establishing the continuity of space-time; the microstructure of spacetime remains an open question. (Maddy <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0029">2005</xref>:455 &#x2013; also note Maddy <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0028">1997</xref>:143&#x2013;146)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Sy wys ook daarop dat selfs Einstein &#x2018;<italic>the inventor of gravitational theory sees no compelling evidence for the continuity of its underlying space-time</italic>&#x2019; (Maddy <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0028">1997</xref>:151). En op die volgende bladsy skryf sy: &#x2018;&#x2026; <italic>but I think that what we&#x2019;ve seen here is enough to cast serious doubt on the existence of any physical phenomena that are literally continuous</italic>&#x2019;.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="s0004">
<title>Meganistiese reduksie en die moderne fisika</title>
<p>Wanneer Stegm&#x00FC;ller &#x2019;n blik werp op 2000 jaar se besinning oor die aard van materie, tree daar volgens hom twee kontrasterende grondopvattinge na vore, naamlik die &#x2018;atomistiese opvatting&#x2019; en die &#x2018;kontinuum-opvatting&#x2019; (die &#x2018;<italic>atomistische Auffassung</italic>&#x2019; en die &#x2018;<italic>Kontinuumsaffassung</italic>&#x2019;) (Stegm&#x00FC;ller <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0043">1987</xref>:91). Waar hierdie opvattings diskreetheid en kontinu&#x00EF;teit respektiewelik eensydig beklemtoon, sou die moderne ontwikkeling vanaf Newton tot by die twintigste-eeuse fisika twee nuwe verklaringsbeginsels ontgin, naamlik <italic>beweging</italic> en <italic>energiewerking</italic>. Planck en Einstein wys egter daarop dat die meganiese natuuropvatting alle natuurprosesse tot <italic>beweging</italic> wou herlei (&#x2018;<italic>alle Vorg&#x00E4;nge in der Natur auf Bewegung zur&#x00FC;ckzuf&#x00FC;hren</italic>&#x2019;) (Planck <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0034">1910</xref>:53). Hierdie poging om <italic>kontinu&#x00EF;teit</italic> tussen die kinematiese en fisiese aspekte te konstrueer, d.w.s. om die &#x2018;gaping&#x2019; (diskontinu&#x00EF;teit) tussen beide te &#x2018;oorbrug&#x2019;, sou egter vasloop in die onomkeerbaarheid van fisiese prosesse, want vanuit &#x2019;n kinematiese perspektief gesien, is alle natuurprosesse immers <italic>omkeerbaar</italic>. Einstein wys daarom tereg op die verskil tussen meganiese omkeerbaarheid en termodinamiese onomkeerbaarheid. Wat termodinamies gesien, onomkeerbaar is, is vanuit &#x2019;n &#x2018;molekul&#x00EA;r meganiese gesigspunt&#x2019; omkeerbaar. Planck vermeld dat die ontdekking van Boltzmann, naamlik dat entropie ekwivalent aan &#x2018;waarskynlikheid&#x2019; is, tot die insig gelei het dat die verloop van natuurgebeure in termodinamiese sin onomkeerbaar is:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Through this insight he [Planck] recognized the nature of courses of events which, in the sense of thermodynamics, are &#x2018;irreversible&#x2019;. Seen from the molecular-mechanical point of view, however, all courses of events are reversible. (Einstein <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0013">1959</xref>:43)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Met ander woorde, die onomkeerbaarheid van fisiese gebeurtenisse dui op die <italic>onherleibaarheid</italic> van die fisiese aspek. Ook Foucault wys op die impasse van die klassieke bewegingsreduksie in die fisika: &#x2018;<italic>When it had at last become clear that it was impossible to fit the entire world into the laws of rectilinear movement &#x2026;</italic>&#x2019; (Foucault <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0015">2003</xref>:139).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="s0005">
<title>Leibniz: <italic>Natura non facit saltus</italic></title>
<p>Die kontinu&#x00EF;teitsopvatting wat nog in die klassieke bewegingsreduksie aanwesig is, sou veral sedert die ontstaan van die kwantumteorie (Max Planck &#x2013; 1900) daartoe bydra dat die klassieke opvatting van die <italic>lex continui</italic> van Leibniz &#x2013; die natuur maak geen spronge nie [&#x2018;<italic>natura non facit saltus</italic>&#x2019;] &#x2013; bevraagteken is. In sy voordrag oor die oneindige<xref ref-type="fn" rid="FN0002"><sup>2</sup></xref> vermeld Hilbert die &#x2018;atomistiek&#x2019; van die materie en die &#x2018;atomistiek&#x2019; van elektrisiteit (atome respektiewelik energiekwanta). Hy stel dat die probleem naamlik is dat:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x2026; &#x2019;n homogene kontinuum wat voortgesette verdeling toelaat en sodoende die oneindige in die kleine toelaat, n&#x00EA;rens in die werklikheid aangetref word nie. Die oneindige deelbaarheid van &#x2019;n kontinuum is slegs &#x2019;n operasie wat in ons gedagtes voorhande is, slegs &#x2019;n idee wat deur ons waarneming van die natuur en die ervaringe van die fisika en chemie weerl&#x00EA; word. (Hilbert <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0022">1925</xref>:164)</p>
</disp-quote>
</sec>
<sec id="s0006">
<title>Golf en deeltjie</title>
<p>Natuurlik roep die onderskeiding tussen <italic>golf</italic> en <italic>deeltjie</italic> soortgelyke vrae op, onder meer omdat fisiese entiteite afwisselend as golwe of as deeltjies beskryf kan word. Die ondersoekinge van Born, Jordan en Dirac het aangetoon dat die matrikse wat die posisie en momentum van &#x2019;n elektron verteenwoordig, nie kommuteer (<italic>commute</italic>) nie (vgl. Born, Pyrmont &#x0026; Biem <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0001">1967&#x2013;1968</xref>).</p>
<p>Dit is merkwaardig dat Ostwald se &#x2018;Energetik&#x2019; (energieteorie) nie &#x2019;n blywende invloed op die 20ste-eeuse fisika uitgeoefen het nie, vermoedelik omdat dit alle klem op <italic>kontinu&#x00EF;teit</italic> geplaas het en &#x2019;n <italic>atomistiese</italic> benadering (<italic>diskreetheid</italic>) afgewys het. Hy het selfs die bestaan van atome bevraagteken (sien Vogel <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0046">1961</xref>:35).</p>
<p>Heisenberg verwys na Einstein se siening van die deeltjiestruktuur van ligstrale. Hierdie deeltjies (fotone) is energiedraend, omgekeerd eweredig tot die golflengte daarvan. Volgens Heisenberg het hierdie situasie skielik &#x2019;n beduidende verleentheid vir fisici geskep:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x2026; naas die totaliteit van interferensie- en krommingsverskynsels, wat toon dat lig uit golwe bestaan, staan die foto-elektriese effek en resent ontdekte verskynsels wat toon dat lig deur deeltjies (fotone) gekonstitueer word. (Heiseng <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0020">1956</xref>:124)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Die enigste weg uit hierdie swarigheid is om &#x2018;die golfbeskouing van lig en die deeltjiebeskouing daarvan as twee komplement&#x00EA;re beskouings van dieselfde werklikheid te onderken&#x2019; (Heisenberg <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0020">1956</xref>:124). Heisenberg praat van the &#x2018;golfaspek&#x2019; en die &#x2018;deeltjieaspek&#x2019; van straling (Heisenberg <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0021">1958</xref>:40).</p>
<p>Born, Pyrmont en Biem meen dat fisici ten onregte hier van &#x2019;n dualisme praat. Volgens hulle word dit immers toenemend duidelik dat die &#x2018;natuur n&#x00F3;g as deeltjies alleen, n&#x00F3;g uitsluitlik as golwe verstaan kan word&#x2019; omdat &#x2019;n &#x2018;behoorlike verstaan&#x2019; nie kan wipplank ry tussen &#x2019;n &#x2018;deeltjiebeeld&#x2019; en &#x2019;n &#x2018;golfbeeld&#x2019; nie. Om reg te laat geskied aan &#x2019;n eenheidsbeeld van fisiese sisteme te midde van verskillende wyses (aspekte of modi) van verklaring, praat hierdie outeurs van die gelyktydige aanwesigheid van drie verskillende &#x2018;Darstellungen&#x2019; (posisionerings of voorstellings), naamlik &#x2019;n &#x2018;Ortsdarstellung&#x2019; (ruimtelike posisie), &#x2019;n &#x2018;Wellendarstellung&#x2019; (impulse of snelhede &#x2013; kinematiese modus van verklaring) en van &#x2019;n &#x2018;<italic>Energiedarstellun</italic>g&#x2019; (die fisiese modus van verklaring) (Born et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0001">1967&#x2013;1968</xref>:416&#x2013;417).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="s0007">
<title>Fisiese ruime en matematiese ruimte</title>
<p>Die fisika ontmoet in hierdie onderskeidinge voorbeelde van &#x2018;aspekanalogie&#x00EB;&#x2019; &#x2013; in die sin dat twee aspekte ooreenstem in di&#x00E9; opsig waarin hulle verskil. Wanneer Hilbert opmerk dat die &#x2018;eerste na&#x00EF;ewe indruk wat die natuurgebeure en materie laat, is dat hulle duursaam, en kontinu is&#x2019; (Hilbert <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0022">1925</xref>:163), blyk dit dat hoewel beide ruimte in oorspronklike sin en fisiese ruimte <italic>uitgebreid</italic> is (die ooreenkoms tussen die ruimte-aspek en die fisiese aspek), daar &#x2019;n belangrike verskil is, want waar matematiese ruimte beide kontinu en oneindig verder verdeelbaar is, is fisiese ruimte nie kontinu nie en derhalwe ook nie oneindig verder verdeelbaar nie (die huidige ondeelbare &#x2018;kwanta&#x2019; staan as &#x2018;<italic>quarks</italic>&#x2019; bekend). Ons sou ook kon s&#x00EA; dat <italic>in</italic> die element van ooreenkoms &#x2013; uitgebreidheid &#x2013; die <italic>verskil</italic> tusssen hierdie twee aspekte tot openbaring kom of dat twee aspekte derhalwe ooreenstem in di&#x00E9; opsig waarin hulle verskil.</p>
<p>Die frase &#x2018;fisiese ruimte&#x2019; belig gevolglik &#x2019;n <italic>ruimte</italic>-<italic>analogie</italic> in die struktuur van die fisiese aspek van die werklikheid. Wat ons vroe&#x00EB;r oor die oneindige verdeelbaarheid van &#x2019;n kontinuum uitgelig het, dui eweneens op &#x2019;n analogie van die oorspronklike aritmetiese sin van opeenvolging (die suksessief oneindige) binne die struktuur van die ruimte-aspek.</p>
<p>Die dualiteit en komplementariteit van <italic>deeltjie</italic> (wat die diskrete sin van getal weerspie&#x00EB;l) en <italic>golf</italic> (wat die kontinu&#x00EF;teit van eenparige beweging belig) hoef daarom nie as &#x2019;n <italic>dualisme</italic> gesien te word nie, want dit appelleer bloot op die gesamentlike aanwesigheid van verskillende verklaringsmodi (aspekte as verklaringswyses) wat uniek samehangend <italic>gelyktydig</italic> verdiskonteer moet word.</p>
<p>Analogie&#x00EB; van getal en ruimte kom uiteraard ook in die biotiese aspek voor.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="s0008">
<title>Kontinu&#x00EF;teit en diskontinu&#x00EF;teit in die biologie</title>
<p>Hoe seer &#x2019;n vakwetenskap daarop sou wou aanspraak maak dat dit &#x2018;eksak&#x2019; of &#x2018;standpuntloos&#x2019; is, vertel die <italic>geskiedenis</italic> van elke vakwetenskap &#x2019;n verhaal wat die teendeel wys. Dat die filosofiegeskiedenis uiteenlopende denkstrominge en standpunte herberg, word gewoonlik as vanselfsprekend aanvaar, maar dit is veral in die sogenaamde &#x2018;eksakte&#x2019; natuurwetenskappe waar ons nie sou verwag dat daar ook beduidende alternatiewe standpunte aangetref word nie.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="FN0003"><sup>3</sup></xref></p>
<p>Waarop ons in hierdie gedeelte die aandag wil vestig, is nie alleen dat daar sedert (en selfs voor) Darwin uiteenlopende biologiese standpuntnames bestaan (het) nie, maar dat belangrike elemente daarvan juis met die probleem van <italic>kontinu&#x00EF;teit</italic> en <italic>diskontinu&#x00EF;teit</italic> verband hou.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="s0009">
<title>Die invloed van Leibniz se kontinu&#x00EF;teitspostulaat op die moderne denke</title>
<p>Hoewel daar dus voor en na die verskyning van Darwin se <italic>The origin of species</italic> uiteenlopende standpunte in die moderne biologie aanwesig is, beklee die (neo-)Darwinisme sekerlik &#x2019;n dominante posisie in hierdie geskiedenis.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="FN0004"><sup>4</sup></xref> Teen 1942 is die &#x2018;moderne sintese&#x2019; deur Huxley in samewerking met R.A. Fisher, Theodosius Dobzhansky, J.B.S. Haldane, Sewall Wright, E.B. Ford, Ernst Mayr, Bernhard Rensch, Sergei Chetverikov, George Gaylord Simpson, en G. Ledyard Stebbins ontwikkel.</p>
<p>Die merkwaardige gegewe is egter dat Leibniz se kontinu&#x00EF;teitsopvatting (uit die 17de eeu) gelei het tot die alleroorheersende basiese (filosofiese) aanname van die (neo-)Darwinisme. Dit word naamlik onderl&#x00EA; deur die <italic>nominalistiese</italic> oortuiging dat daar geen universaliteit, geen universele <italic>orde vir</italic> of <italic>ordelikheid van</italic> dinge buite die menslike gees bestaan nie. Die werklikheid bestaan uit &#x2019;n onoorsigtelike menigvuldigheid van dinge wat in &#x2019;n struktuurlose kontinuum opgeneem is.</p>
<p>Wanneer Simpson s&#x00EA; &#x2018;<italic>[O]rganisms are not types and they do not have types</italic>&#x2019; (Simpson <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0041">1969</xref>:8&#x2013;9), verdedig hy &#x2019;n (tipiese!) <italic>nominalistiese</italic> siening. Darwin het reeds pertinent gestel dat &#x2018;[<italic>N]o line of demarcation can be drawn between species</italic>&#x2019; (Burrow <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0003">1968</xref>:n.d.). Dertien bladsye verder trek hy die implikasies van hierdie nominalistiese ori&#x00EB;ntering: &#x2018;<italic>In short, we shall have to treat species in the same manner as those naturalists treat genera, who admit that genera are merely artificial combinations made for convenience</italic>&#x2019; (Burrow <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0003">1968</xref>:n.d.).</p>
<p>Die kragtige invloed van hierdie nominalistiese erfenis is nog steeds sigbaar in die wysgerige ori&#x00EB;ntasie van &#x2019;n filosoof wat oor die &#x2018;orde van dinge&#x2019; nagedink het. Foucault merk op dat in &#x2019;n epistemologiese sin die sisteem en metode van die klassieke benadering op kennis van &#x2018;<italic>empirical individuals</italic>&#x2019; berus wat slegs verkry kan word &#x2018;f<italic>rom the continuous, ordered and universal tabulation of all possible differences</italic>&#x2019; (Foucault <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0015">2003</xref>:157). Dieselfde nominalistiese ori&#x00EB;ntasie kom in die woorde van Bonnet wat Foucault (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0015">2003</xref>) aanhaal, na vore:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>There are no leaps in nature: everything in it is graduated, shaded. If there were an empty space between any two beings, what reason would there be for proceeding from the one to the other? (p. 160)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Op dieselfde bladsy trek Foucault die konklusie: &#x2018;<italic>Consequently, our divisions into species and classes &#x201C;are purely nominal</italic>&#x201D;&#x2019;.</p>
<p>Die filosofiese agtergrond van hierdie opvatting is in die <italic>lex continui</italic> (kontinu&#x00EF;teitswet) van Leibniz te vind. In <italic>The origin of species</italic> tref ons immers die slagspreuk van Leibniz se kontinu&#x00EF;teitspotulaat &#x2013; <italic>natura non facit saltum</italic> &#x2013; <italic>vier</italic> keer aan. Darwin verklaar onder meer:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>As natural selection acts solely by accumulating slight, successive, favourable variations, it can produce no great or sudden modifications; it can act only by short and slow steps. Hence, the canon of &#x2018;Natura non facit saltum&#x2019;, which every fresh addition to our knowledge tends to confirm, is on this theory. [simply &#x2013; Burrow <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0003">1968</xref>:n.d.] intelligible (Darwin <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0005">1872</xref>:n.p.)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Vroe&#x00EB;r skryf hy: &#x2018;Natuurlike seleksie werk slegs deur die bewaring en akkumulasie van (infinitesimale &#x2013; Burrow <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0003">1968</xref>:n.d.) klein, oorge&#x00EB;rfde modifikasies&#x2019; (Burrow <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0003">1968</xref>:n.d.). Wat nie uit die oog verloor moet word nie, is dat die Leibniziaanse kontinu&#x00EF;teitsopvatting van Darwin en die neo-Darwinisme nog steeds met die <italic>diskontinu&#x00EF;teit</italic> tussen &#x2018;lewe&#x2019; en &#x2018;nielewend&#x2019; worstel. Hierdie diskontinu&#x00EF;teit kan nie deur die idee van <italic>natuurlike seleksie</italic> verklaar word nie. Simpson het immers reeds daarop gewys dat aangesien &#x2019;n molekule nie l&#x00E9;&#x00E9;f nie, dit kontradiktories is om van <italic>molekul&#x00EA;re biologie</italic> te praat: &#x2018;<italic>Since biology is the study of life and molecules, as such, are not alive, the term &#x201C;molecular biology&#x201D; is selfcontradictory</italic>&#x2019; (Simpson <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0041">1969</xref>:6). Hierdie uitspraak werp bykomend lig op &#x2019;n diskussieopmerking wat Dobshansky by geleentheid na aanleiding van &#x2019;n voordrag wat Schramm gemaak het, naamlik dat &#x2018;<italic>[P]re-biological natural selection is a contradiction in terms&#x2019;</italic> (Dobzhansky <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0012">1973</xref>:310 in Schram <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0039">1973</xref>).</p>
<p>In die sentrum van hierdie spanningsveld tussen <italic>kontinu&#x00EF;teit</italic> en <italic>diskontinu&#x00EF;teit</italic> in die kontempor&#x00EA;re biologie moet ook vlugtig verwys word na die diskontinu&#x00EF;teit wat tussen (makro-)molekule enersyds en die gespesifiseerde inligting van lewende dinge andersyds bestaan. Meyer (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0033">2013</xref>) som die huidige situasie op wanneer hy skryf:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>The type of information present in living cells &#x2013; that is, &#x2018;specified&#x2019; information in which the sequence of characters matters to the function of the sequence as a whole &#x2013; has generated an acute mystery. No undirected physical or chemical process has demonstrated the capacity to produce specified information starting &#x2018;from purely physical or chemical&#x2019; precursors. For this reason, chemical evolutionary theories have failed to solve the mystery of the origin of first life &#x2013; a claim that few mainstream evolutionary theorists now dispute. (p. vi)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Die beroep op vermeende gemeenskaplike &#x2018;<italic>ancestral genes</italic>&#x2019; het intussen op genoomstudies uitgeloop wat die filogenetiese prentjie gekompliseer het. Verskillende organismes lewer nou honderdduisende gene op wat geen betekenisvolle ooreenkoms met die reeks van enige ander, bekende gene vertoon nie. Dit handel oor ORFans &#x2013; waar <italic>ORFans</italic> verwys na &#x2018;<italic>open reading frames of unknown origin</italic>&#x2019;. Meyer wys daarop dat ORFan-gene skielik orals opduik:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>[It] turned up in every major group of organisms, including plants and animals as well as both eukaryotic and prokaryotic one-celled living entities. In some organisms, as much as one half of the entire genome comprises ORFan genes. (Meyer <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0033">2013</xref>:216)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Aangesien ORFan-gene per definisie geen homolo&#x00EB; het nie, kan dit nie aan voorvaderlike gene verbind word nie &#x2013; &#x2019;n feitlike gegewe wat deur &#x2019;n toenemende getal Darwinistiese biolo&#x00EB; erken word (Meyer <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0033">2013</xref>:216). Dat neo-Darwinistiese biolo&#x00EB; van <italic>de novo-</italic>ontstaan praat en na prosesse verwys wat tans glad nie meer bestaan nie, neig in die rigting van &#x2019;n erkenning van die <italic>diskontinu&#x00EF;teit</italic> tussen nielewende en lewende dinge. Dit hang sekerlik saam met die misterieuse verskyning van dierlike stamtipes gedurende die Kambriese periode wat nou toegeskryf word aan informasie wat nie in gene gestoor word nie, want dit betref <italic>epigenetiese</italic> informasie.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="FN0005"><sup>5</sup></xref></p>
<p>Gegewe die materialisties fisikalistiese ori&#x00EB;ntering van Dawkins is dit verbasend dat hy die <italic>immateri&#x00EB;le</italic> vlak van kultuuroordrag betree. Hy doen dit deur analoog aan die aard van gene binne die &#x2018;<italic>soup of human culture</italic>&#x2019; &#x2019;n &#x2018;kulturele geen&#x2019; aan te dui wat as &#x2019;n &#x2018;<italic>meme</italic>&#x2019; beskryf moet word. Voorbeelde van &#x2018;<italic>memes</italic>&#x2019; is &#x2018;<italic>tunes, ideas, catch-phrases, clothes fashions, ways of making pots or of building arches</italic>&#x2019; (Dawkins <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0008">2006</xref>:192). Prakties besit al hierdie &#x2018;<italic>memes</italic>&#x2019; &#x2019;n immateri&#x00EB;le kant. Dit is vir hom nie problematies nie, want hy herinner ons daaraan dat &#x2018;<italic>genetic evolution &#x2026; is only one of many possible kinds of evolution</italic>&#x2019; (Dawkins <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0008">2006</xref>:194).</p>
<p>Hierdie siening van hom weerspreek die leidinggewende rol van sy algemene kontinu&#x00EF;teitsgeloof, want dit herberg &#x2019;n element van <italic>diskontinu&#x00EF;teit</italic> &#x2013; gegee in die sprong van <italic>materieel</italic> na <italic>immaterieel</italic>. Die voorbeelde van &#x2018;<italic>memes</italic>&#x2019; wat Dawkins noem, verskyn almal binne die domein van menslike sinbelewing wat nie alleen genormeerd is nie,<xref ref-type="fn" rid="FN0006"><sup>6</sup></xref> maar wat tegelyk ook in die tipiese aard van <italic>ontwerp</italic> en van menslike <italic>doelstellinge</italic> (&#x2018;<italic>purposes&#x2019;</italic>) ingebed is &#x2013; iets wat hy andersins radikaal afwys:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>The universe we observe has precisely the properties we should expect if there is, at bottom, no design, no purpose, no evil and no good, nothing but blind, pitiless indifference. (Dawkins <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0007">1995</xref>:155)</p>
</disp-quote>
</sec>
<sec id="s0010">
<title>Die invloed van die kontinu&#x00EF;teitspostulaat op die interpretasie van die paleontologiese rekord</title>
<p>Hierdie filosofiese aanname rakende die vermeende oneindig kleine [kontinue] oorgange is weliswaar van meet af gekonfronteer met die diskontinu&#x00EF;teite in die paleontologiese rekord. Darwin het hierdie probleem eerlik onderken wanneer hy opmerk: &#x2018;<italic>Geology assuredly does not reveal any such finely-graduated organic chain; and this, perhaps, is the most obvious and serious objection which can be urged against the theory</italic>&#x2019; (Burrow <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0003">1968</xref>:n.d.). Leidinggewende neo-Darwiniste wys reeds sedert die 1970&#x2019;s daarop dat die dominante patroon van die paleontologiese rekord <italic>stasis</italic> (<italic>konstansie</italic>/<italic>onveranderde kontinu&#x00EF;teit</italic>) is.</p>
<p>As tussenopmerking moet ons daarop wys dat die kontinu&#x00EF;teitswet van Leibniz die biochemikus F.R. Jevons reeds in die 1960s tot die volgende ideaal ge&#x00EF;nspireer het:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>The task of bridging across the intermediate levels is perhaps the major challenge facing contemporary biochemistry. It forms a sort of <italic>leitmotif</italic> through the remainder of this book &#x2026; The continuity of the hierarchy offers hope that by systematic, stage by stage comparisons the gap between molecules and large animals can be bridged. (Jevons <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0023">1964</xref>:97)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Reeds in 1974 skryf die paleontoloog D.B. Kitts in die neo-Darwinistiese tydskrif <italic>Evolution</italic>: &#x2018;<italic>Evolution requires intermediate forms between species and paleontology does not provide them</italic>&#x2019; (Kitts <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0026">1974</xref>:467 &#x2013; compare Gould &#x0026; Eldredge <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0019">1977</xref>). Ooreenstemmend hiermee skryf een van die bekendste &#x2018;New Synthesis&#x2019;-biolo&#x00EB; in 1991:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Paleontologists had long been aware of a seeming contradiction between Darwin&#x2019;s postulate of gradualism &#x2026; and the actual findings of paleontology. Following phyletic lines through time seemed to reveal only minimal gradual changes but no clear evidence for any change of a species into a different genus or for the gradual origin of an evolutionary novelty. Anything truly novel always seemed to appear quite abruptly in the fossil record. (Mayr <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0031">1991</xref>:138; compare McGarr <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0032">2006</xref>:242 et seqq)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>En byna &#x2019;n dekade later verklaar Jones (1999):</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>The fossil record &#x2013; in defiance of Darwin&#x2019;s whole idea of gradual change &#x2013; often makes great leaps from one form to the next. Far from the display of intermediates to be expected from slow advance through natural selection, many species appear without warning, persist in fixed form and disappear, leaving no descendants. (p. 252)</p>
</disp-quote>
</sec>
<sec id="s0011">
<title>&#x2018;<italic>Continuous flux</italic>&#x2019; staan meer sentraal in Darwin se denke as natuurlike seleksie</title>
<p>Gould beklemtoon dat hierdie <italic>kontinu&#x00EF;teitswet</italic> in Darwin se denke selfs meer sentraal staan as die idee van <italic>natuurlike seleksie</italic>. Hy s&#x00EA;: &#x2018;<italic>We often fail to recognize how much of the</italic> Origin <italic>presents an exposition of gradualism, rather than a defense of natural selection</italic>&#x2019; (Gould <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0018">2002</xref>:151). Hy verbind die verleentheid wat die idee van vooruitgang (&#x2018;<italic>progress&#x2019;</italic>) vir die Darwinisme geskep het (binne die toevalsverhaal van mutasie en natuurlike seleksie is daar geen ruimte vir doelgerigtheid, teleologie of vooruitgang nie) aan die a priori<italic>-</italic>verbintenis tot die kontinu&#x00EF;teitspostulaat van Leibniz. Gould merk op dat die stories wat ons hoor &#x2018;met dieselfde grondleggende valstrik begin en dan in &#x2019;n identiese en foutiewe wyse voortgaan&#x2019; (Gould <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0018">2002</xref>:913). Dit begin met die gevaarlikste van alle mentale valstrikke: &#x2018;<italic>a hidden assumption, depicted as self-evident, if recognized at all&#x2014; namely, a basic definition of evolution as continuous flux</italic>&#x2019; (Gould <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0018">2002</xref>:913).</p>
<p>&#x2019;n Verdere agterliggende wysgerige aanname word deur Sterelny uitgelig wanneer hy stel dat Dawkins die &#x2018;<italic>epistemic ideal of Enlightenment rationality</italic>&#x2019; aanhang &#x2013; &#x2018;<italic>according to which the scientific description of the universe is &#x201C;true &#x2026; beautiful and complete</italic>&#x201D;&#x2019; (soos Sterelny dit stel &#x2013; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0044">2007</xref>:14). In die lig daarvan dat Dawkins tegelyk &#x2019;n navolger van die <italic>kontinu&#x00EF;teitspostulaat</italic> is, is dit nie verbasend dat hy na die &#x2018;<italic>imperfection</italic>&#x2019; van die fossielrekord verwys nie. Ironies genoeg, maak hy terselfdertyd &#x2019;n opmerking oor die <italic>diskontinu&#x00EF;teit</italic> wat deur die verskyning van groepe ongewerwelde diere geopenbaar word:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>And we find many of them already in an advanced state of evolution the very first time they appear. It is as though they were just planted there, without any evolutionary history. (Dawkins <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0006">1987</xref>:229)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Die bioloog wat egter goed begryp het dat Darwin se stellingname in 1859 geen kontinue vooruitgang (&#x2018;<italic>progress&#x2019;</italic>) toelaat nie, is Stephen Gould. Hy wys selfkrities op die onverantwoorde kombinasie van natuurlike seleksie, vooruitgang en toenemende kompleksiteit &#x2013; gesamentlik ingekapsel in die onderliggende kontinu&#x00EF;teitsgeloof:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>I believe that the most knowledgeable students of life&#x2019;s history have always sensed the failure of the fossil record to supply the most desired ingredient of Western comfort: a clear signal of progress measured as some form of steadily increasing complexity for life as a whole through time. The basic evidence cannot support such a view, for simple forms still predominate in most environments, as they always have. Faced with this undeniable fact, supporters of progress (that is, nearly all of us throughout the history of evolutionary thought) have shifted criteria and ended up grasping at straws. (Gould <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0017">1996</xref>:166&#x2013;167)</p>
<p>The problem that spawns this confusion within the Darwinian tradition may be simply stated as a paradox. The basic theory of natural selection offers no statement about general progress, and supplies no mechanism whereby overall advance might be expected. Yet both Western culture and the undeniable facts of a fossil record that started with bacteria alone, and has now exalted us, cry out in unison for a rationale that will place progress into the center of evolutionary theory. (Gould <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0017">1996</xref>:136)</p>
</disp-quote>
</sec>
<sec id="s0012">
<title>&#x2018;<italic>Imperfection</italic>&#x2019; of stasis?</title>
<p>Hierdie &#x2018;verborge aanname&#x2019; verklaar waarom die dominante stasispatroon van die paleontologiese rekord (duursaamheid op die basis van abrupte verskyning en verdwyning &#x2013; diskontinu&#x00EF;teit) toegeskryf word aan die vermeende &#x2018;<italic>imperfection</italic>&#x2019; daarvan. Nogtans merk Gould op:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Despite this strong belief in geological gradualism, Darwin knew perfectly well &#x2013; as all paleontologists always have &#x2013; that stasis and abrupt appearance represent a norm for the observed history of most species. (Gould <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0018">2002</xref>:757)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>In navolging van sy mentor, Charles Lyell, het Darwin tewens hierdie &#x2018;<italic>striking discordance between theoretical expectation and actual observation</italic>&#x2019; toegeskryf aan die &#x2018;<italic>extreme imperfection of the fossil record</italic>&#x2019; (Gould <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0018">2002</xref>:757).</p>
<p>Wanneer abrupte verskyning a priori as &#x2018;tekens van &#x2019;n onvolledige empiriese rekord&#x2019; gesien word, ontstaan die wetenskapsteoretiese vraag: hoe kan gradualisme van binne-uit weerl&#x00EA; word? Bedink hierby:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x2026; a species at a large number of horizons well spread over several million years, and if these samples record no net change, with beginning and end points substantially the same &#x2026; then a conclusion of stasis rests on the presence of data, not on absence! (Gould <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0018">2002</xref>:759)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Gould vra tereg dat wanneer stasis nie weggeredeneer kan word as ontbrekende informasie nie, hoe gradualisme hierdie &#x2018;prominentste teken van die fossielerekord&#x2019; tegemoet tree. Die antwoord hierop ontbloot &#x2019;n verleentheidsperspektief vir die onderliggende kontinu&#x00EF;teitspostulaat waarop gradualisme berus. Gould skryf: &#x2018;&#x2026; <italic>gradualism occurs too rarely to generate enough cases for calculating a distribution of rates</italic>&#x2019; (Gould <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0018">2002</xref>:761&#x2013;762).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="s0013">
<title>Teksboekvoorbeelde</title>
<p>As alternatief het paleontolo&#x00EB; egter met die &#x2018;valse metode&#x2019; van &#x2018;toeligting aan die hand van enkele voorbeelde&#x2019; gewerk. Dit kom daarop neer dat geldigmaking deur middel van een of twee &#x2018;teksboekgevalle&#x2019; geskied, aangenome dat die voorbeelde wat gekies is &#x2018;genoegsaam oortuigend&#x2019; is. &#x2018;Maar selfs hier, op hierdie minimale vlak van dokumentasie, het die metode gefaal&#x2019;. &#x2019;n Paar voorbeelde het toegang tot die literatuur gevind waar dit eindeloos herhaal is kragtens die eeu-oue praktyk van teksboekkopi&#x00EB;ring in opeenvolgende publikasies. Gould tipeer die ironiese uitkoms van hierdie praktyk treffend: &#x2018;<italic>But, in a final irony, almost all these famous exemplars turned out to be false on rigorous restudy</italic>&#x2019; (Gould <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0018">2002</xref>:762).</p>
<p>Volledigheidshalwe vermeld ons twee van die klassieke voorbeelde, die &#x2018;<italic>peppered moths</italic>&#x2019; uit die industri&#x00EB;le omwenteling in Engeland en die &#x2018;paradeperd&#x2019; (veral deur Simpson beskryf).</p>
<p>Die eerste &#x2018;teksboekvoorbeeld&#x2019; wat ons vermeld, betref die wit &#x2018;peppered moths&#x2019; wat tydens die industri&#x00EB;le revolusie weens lugvervuiling makliker sigbaar vir die vo&#x00EB;ls op die donker stamme van bome was. In terme van natuurlike seleksie sou hierdie situasie die swart motte se kanse op oorlewing begunstig. Indien hierdie verhaal waar was, sou dit egter nog nie makro-evolusie kon ondersteun nie, aangesien die swart-wit motte nog steeds tot dieselfde <italic>spesie</italic> behoort. Verdere ondersoek het egter aangetoon dat dit op &#x2019;n foutiewe aanname berus, naamlik dat die motte inderdaad normaalweg op die stamme van bome sit. Teen 1980 het dit duielik geword dat die motte veral op die dun takkies in die nok van bome sit. Daarom wys Sargent et al. daarop dat die hele motverhaal mank gaan aan grondige gebreke (vgl. Sargent, Millar &#x0026; Lambert <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0038">1998</xref>; Majerus <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0030">1998</xref>). Wells vermeld dat die meeste teksboekvoorbeelde per hand op die stamme geplaas is: <italic>&#x2018;[most] textbook pictures of peppered moths show specimens that have been manually placed on tree trunks</italic>&#x2019; &#x2013; en hieruit konkludeer hy dan dat &#x2018;<italic>the classical example of natural selection is actually an example of unnatural selection!</italic>&#x2019; (Wells <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0047">1999</xref>:n.p.).</p>
<p>Die tweede teksboekvoorbeeld betref die evolusie van die perd. Simpson bied &#x2019;n grootliks vereenvoudigde voorstelling van die filogenie van die <italic>Equidae</italic> (Simpson <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0040">1961</xref>:261), maar wys nogtans krities daarop dat die vermeende voorsaat van die perd, die eohippus, <italic>nie</italic> &#x2019;n perd was nie (Simpson <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0040">1961</xref>:345). Gould haal Prothero en Shubin aan wat oor die vermeende evolusie van die perd navorsing gedoen het en die standaardopvatting as &#x2019;n <italic>mite</italic> beskou. Let daarop dat die kruks van die opvatting wat hulle kritiseer, handel oor &#x2018;<italic>gradualistically varying parts of a continuum</italic>&#x2019; en dat daarop gewys word dat daar duidelike afgrensinge bestaan wat oor miljoene jare &#x2018;staties&#x2019; gebly het:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>This is contrary to the widely held myth about horse species as gradualistically varying parts of a continuum, with no real distinctions between species. Throughout the history of horses, the species are well-marked and static over millions of years. (Gould <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0017">1996</xref>:68 &#x2013; compare with Gould as well <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0018">2002</xref>:846&#x2013;847)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Raup merk op:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>We actually may have fewer examples of smooth transitions than we had in Darwin&#x2019;s time, because some of the old examples have turned out to be invalid when studied in more detail. (Johnson <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0024">1991</xref>:171)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Ondanks die dominante (<italic>diskontinue</italic>) patroon van die paleontologiese rekord, is die kontinu&#x00EF;teitspostulaat oorheersend by diegene wat glo aan die &#x2018;<italic>imperfection</italic>&#x2019; van die fossielrekord. Darwin se eie belydenis is treffend eerlik:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>But I do not pretend that I should ever have suspected how poor was the record in the best preserved geological sections, had not the absence of innumerable transitional links between the species which lived at the commencement and close of each formation, pressed so hardly on my theory. (Burrow <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0003">1968</xref>:n.d.)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Gesien vanuit die hoek van diskreetheid en kontinu&#x00EF;teit kan ons nog steeds &#x2019;n verbindingslyn met die geskiedenis van hierdie probleem sien, want in Darwin se benadering is beide elemente duidelik aanwesig. Te midde van die algehele oorheersing wat van die kontinu&#x00EF;teitspostulaat uitgaan, beklemtoon Darwin nogtans die diskrete perspektief van die stryd tussen individuele lewende entiteite. Gould stel dit kernagtig:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>First, and foremost, we grasp the theoretical centrality of Darwin&#x2019;s conclusion that natural selection works through a struggle among individual organisms for reproductive success. (Gould <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0018">2002</xref>:125)</p>
</disp-quote>
</sec>
<sec id="s0014">
<title>Biodiversiteit</title>
<p>Uiteraard hou die probleem van diskreetheid en kontinu&#x00EF;teit ook verband met biodiversiteit (diskreet) soos wat dit tans bestaan (ook bekend as die &#x2018;natuurlike sisteem&#x2019;), sowel as met die diskontinue verskyning van fossiele.</p>
<p>In die denke van een van die gesaghebbende neo-Darwinistiese denkers duik hierdie probleem ook op. Coyne verwys na diskrete klusters lewende dinge as <italic>spesies</italic> en stel dan die probleem van diskreetheid en kontinu&#x00EF;teit:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>And at first sight, their existence looks like a problem for evolutionary theory. Evolution is, after all, a continuous process, so how can it produce groups of animals and plants that are discrete and discontinuous, separated from others by gaps in appearance and behavior? (Coyne <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0004">2009</xref>:184)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Die bogemelde nominalistiese struktuurbegrip wat Darwin gebruik, is volkome in die greep van die moderne kontinu&#x00EF;teitspostulaat &#x2013; sistematiese onderskeidinge is volgens hierdie opvatting volkome arbitr&#x00EA;re (willekeurige) name (<italic>nomina</italic>). Dit verwys na &#x2019;n struktuurlose kontinuum buite die menslike gees &#x2013; &#x2018;organismes is nie tipes nie en dit besit ook nie tipes nie&#x2019; (&#x2018;<italic>Organisms are not types and do not have types</italic>&#x2019; [Simpson <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0041">1969</xref>:8&#x2013;9]).</p>
<p>Hoewel Coyne saam met Darwin aan die kontinu&#x00EF;teitspostulaat vashou, verskil hy egter op hierdie punt van die <italic>nominalistiese</italic> beskouing van Darwin. Gevolglik verdedig hy die oortuiging dat die diskontinu&#x00EF;teite van die natuur nie arbitr&#x00EA;r nie, maar &#x2019;n objektiewe feit is. (&#x2018; &#x2026; <italic>the discontinuities of nature are not arbitrary, but an objective fact</italic>&#x2019; [Coyne <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0004">2009</xref>:184]). Op hierdie punt kies Coyne derhalwe &#x2019;n <italic>realistiese</italic> stellingname &#x2013; klaarblyklik sonder om te besef dat die teenstelling tussen die <italic>realisme</italic> en die <italic>nominalisme</italic> sy ontstaan in die Griekse filosofie het nie. Coyne is byvoorbeeld oortuig spesies besit &#x2018;<italic>an objective reality and are not simply arbitrary human constructs</italic>&#x2019; (Coyne <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0004">2009</xref>:186).</p>
<p>Gould wys op die grondleggende rol wat gradualisme in die denke van Darwin speel &#x2013; wat die rol van &#x2019;n lewensbeskouing vervul:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x2026; gradualism stood prior to natural selection in the core of his beliefs about the nature of things. Natural selection exemplified gradualism, not vice versa &#x2013; and the various forms of gradualism converged to a single, coordinated view of life that extended its compass far beyond natural selection and even evolution itself. (Gould <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0018">2002</xref>:154&#x2013;155)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Wat hier op die spel is, is die moderne natuurwetenskapsideaal wat sedert die Renaissance en in die besonder in die gewaad van Leibniz se kontinu&#x00EF;teitspostulaat &#x2019;n rigtinggewende invloed onder meer op die moderne biologie sou uitoefen. Saam met diskreetheid omspan hierdie twee pole van die belangrikste kontoere waarbinne sowel die filosofie as die verskillende vakwetenskappe na die sewentiende eeu ontwikkel het.</p>
<p>Dit is opvallend dat die emergensie-evolusionisme tegelyk beide opsies verkies, naamlik <italic>kontinu&#x00EF;teit</italic> in afstamming en <italic>diskontinu&#x00EF;teit</italic> in bestaan. Lloyd-Morgan, Whitehead, Alexander, Bavinck en Woltereck het hierdie siening reeds gedurende die eerste helfte van die vorige eeu verdedig, terwyl Polanyi in die tweede helfte van die 20ste-eeu op die problematiese aard van die emergensie-evolusionisme sou wys. Hy skryf:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>We have reached the point at which we must confront the unspecifiability of higher levels in terms of particulars belonging to lower levels, with the fact that the higher levels have in fact come into existence spontaneously from elements of these lower levels. How can the emergent have arisen from particulars that cannot constitute it. (Polanyi <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0035">1968</xref>:393)</p>
</disp-quote>
</sec>
<sec id="s0015">
<title>Afstammingskontinu&#x00EF;teit versus bestaansdiskontinu&#x00EF;teit</title>
<p>Wanneer Dobzhansky hierdie probleem verduidelik met verwysing na die opvattinge van S. Wright (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0048">1964</xref>) kom die probleem van &#x2018;afstammingskontinu&#x00EF;teit&#x2019; in die sentrum te staan. Om byvoorbeeld die aard van &#x2018;<italic>mind</italic>&#x2019; te &#x2018;red&#x2019; kan daar geen <italic>diskontinu&#x00EF;teit</italic> tussen die verskillende vlakke van die afstammingsverhaal bestaan nie. Die gepostuleerde <italic>kontinu&#x00EF;teit</italic> vereis dat wat aan die einde na vore tree, van meet af reeds ingekapsel moes gewees het. Reeds die Duitse dierkundige, Bernard Rensch, het op grond van die veronderstelde kontinu&#x00EF;teit aangeneem dat selfs die materie &#x2018;protopsigiese&#x2019; eienskappe besit &#x2013; hy praat van &#x2018;<italic>protopsychische &#x201C;Materie</italic>&#x201D;&#x2019; (Rensch <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0036">1991</xref>:213).</p>
<p>Wright (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0048">1964</xref>) begin met &#x2019;n probleemstelling: &#x2018;As &#x201C;<italic>mind</italic>&#x201D; in die nielewende w&#x00EA;reld volkome afwesig is &#x2026; hoe het &#x201C;<italic>mind</italic>&#x201D; dan verskyn?&#x2019; Die vermeende <italic>emergensie</italic> van &#x2018;<italic>mind</italic>&#x2019; uit &#x2018;hoegenaamd geen <italic>mind</italic>&#x2019; is volgens hom &#x2018;<italic>sheer magic</italic>&#x2019;.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>The only satisfactory solution of these dilemmas would seem to be &#x2018;that mind is universal, present not only in all organisms and in their cells but in molecules, atoms, and elementary particles&#x2019; (quoted by Dobzhansky <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0011">1967</xref>:28).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Die kontinu&#x00EF;teitspostulaat vereis eenvoudig dat wat uiteindelik verskyn, vanuit die staanspoor reeds teenwoordig moet wees, want anders word &#x2018;oorgegee&#x2019; aan <italic>diskontinu&#x00EF;teit</italic>, soos die skielike verskyning van &#x2018;lewe&#x2019;, &#x2018;bewussyn&#x2019; of &#x2018;<italic>min</italic>d&#x2019;.</p>
<p>Tog relativeer Dobzhansky die benadering van Wright (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0048">1964</xref>) enigsins wanneer hy verduidelik dat as &#x2018;die potensialiteit van &#x201C;<italic>mind</italic>&#x201D; in die eier en die saad en in die DNS-molekule aanwesig moet wees&#x2019;, dit nie daaruit volg dat &#x2018;<italic>that eggs and sperms themselves have minds</italic>&#x2019; (Dobzhansky <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0011">1967</xref>:30).</p>
<p>Ten slotte verwys ons vlugtig na die ontwikkeling in die denke van Denton wat in 1986 sy werk <italic>Evolution: A theory in crisis</italic> (eerste druk 1985) gepubliseer het en dertig jaar later &#x2019;n opvolgwerk die lig laat sien het: <italic>Evolution: Still a theory in crisis</italic> (2016).</p>
<p>In 1985 wou hy argumenteer &#x2018;<italic>that nature is fundamentally discontinuou</italic>s&#x2019;. Hy het daarop gewys dat die hoof-taksadefini&#x00EB;rende eienskappe, soos hare in die geval van die soogdiere en vere in die geval van die vo&#x00EB;ls, &#x2018;<italic>are not led up to from putative ancestral forms via long series of functional intermediates (which I termed &#x201C;continuums of functional forms</italic>&#x201D;)&#x2019; (Denton <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0010">2016</xref>:11). Onderaan dieselfde bladsy beklemtoon hy dat sy tipologiese siening die &#x2018;<italic>taxa</italic>&#x2019; of <italic>tipes</italic> as werklik bestaande (&#x2018;<italic>ontologically real</italic>&#x2019;) beskou, as &#x2018;<italic>distinct components of the world order, as was widely believed in the nineteenth century before Darwin</italic>&#x2019;.</p>
<p>Denton tipeer sy geskrif in 1985/86 as &#x2019;n &#x2018;<italic>full frontal</italic>&#x2019; kritiek &#x2018;<italic>of the standard Darwinian model</italic>&#x2019;: &#x2018;<italic>It implied that the natural system is a natural discontinuum rather than the functional continuum that Darwinian biologists claim</italic>&#x2019; (Denton <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0010">2016</xref>:11).</p>
<p>Die grondoortuiging wat in beide sy werke aangetref word, vat hy soos volg saam:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Nature is in fact a fundamental discontinuum of distinct Types and not the functional continuum maintained by Darwinian orthodocy. (Denton <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0010">2016</xref>:219)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>In die lig van die voorafgaande gegewens wat ons aan die orde gestel het, is dit derhalwe duidelik dat ook die moderne biologie nie aan die probleem van diskreetheid (diskontinu&#x00EF;teit) en kontinu&#x00EF;teit ontkom het nie.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="s0016">
<title>Samevatting</title>
<p>Te midde van opeenvolgende en afwisselend te&#x00EB;gestelde beklemtonings het dit geblyk dat alternatiewe sienings op die aard en verhouding van diskreetheid en kontinu&#x00EF;teit in die filosofie, sowel as in natuurwetenskappe soos die wiskunde, fisika en biologie, &#x2019;n grondleggende rol speel. Daarmee is die onvermydelikheid van die gebruik van beide getal en ruimte as teoretiese verklaringswyses in hierdie dissiplines toereikend bevestig, terwyl bykomend aangetoon is dat alternatiewe standpunte in hierdie vakwetenskappe ook &#x2019;n wisselende gewig aan hierdie twee verklaringsperspektiewe toegeken het. Hoewel dit eintlik voor die hand liggend is, is dit tog verbasend dat die moderne natuurwetenskappe (wiskunde, fisika en biologie) nie die volgende alternatiewe benadering oorweeg het nie (in wysgerige terme gestel, betref dit die alternatief van &#x2019;n <italic>nie-reduksionistiese ontologie</italic>): aanvaar enersyds die uniekheid en onherleibaarheid van getal, ruimte, beweging, asook die fisiese en biotiese aspekte, en belig andersyds hul onverbreeklike wederkerige samehang (vgl. ten opsigte van getal en ruimte Figuur 1 in Strauss <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0045">2017</xref>:7). Hierdie oorkoepelende perspektief is uniek in die moderne natuurwetenskappe en hul geskiedenis.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<ack>
<title>Erkenning</title>
<sec id="s20017" sec-type="COI-statement">
<title>Mededingende belange</title>
<p>Die outeur verklaar dat hy geen finansi&#x00EB;le of persoonlike verhoudings het wat hom op &#x2019;n onvanpaste wyse in die skryf van hierdie artikel kon be&#x00EF;nvloed nie.</p>
</sec>
</ack>
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<fn><p><bold>How to cite this article:</bold> Strauss, D.F.M., 2017, &#x2018;Kontinu&#x00EF;teit en diskontinu&#x00EF;teit in die fisika en biologie, <italic>Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Natuurwetenskap en Tegnologie</italic> 36(1), a1438. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.4102/satnt.v36i1.1438">https://doi.org/10.4102/satnt.v36i1.1438</ext-link></p></fn>
<fn id="FN0001"><label>1</label><p>Longo verwys na die bespreking van hierdie debat in Salanskisk en Sinaceur (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0037">1992</xref>). Bykomend merk hy op dat die wiskundige logika simboliese tale met diskrete inferensies eksklusief as die uiteindelike fundering van die wiskunde benut &#x2013; selfs in die wiskundige analise van die kontinuum.</p></fn>
<fn id="FN0002"><label>2</label><p>Dit het op 4 Junie 1925 tydens &#x2018;n byeenkoms van die Westf&#x00E4;lischen Mathematischen Gesellshaft in M&#x00FC;nster plaasgevind ter nagedagtenis aan Weierstrass en dit is later daardie jaar in die <italic>Mathematische Annalen</italic> gepubliseer.</p></fn>
<fn id="FN0003"><label>3</label><p>Let bloot op die woorde van L.E.J. Brouwer insake die verskille tussen die <italic>klassieke wiskunde</italic> en die <italic>intu&#x00EF;sionistiese wiskunde</italic>:
<disp-quote><p>As a matter of course also the languages of the two mathematical schools diverge. And even in those mathematical theories which are covered by a neutral language, i.e. by a language understandable on both sides, either school operates with mathematical entities not recognized by the other one: there are intuitionist structures which cannot be fitted into any classical logical frame, and there are classical arguments not applying to any introspective image. Likewise, in the theories mentioned, mathematical entities recognized by both parties on each side are found satisfying theorems which for the other school are either false, or senseless, or even in a way contradictory. In particular, theorems holding in intuitionism, but not in classical mathematics, often originate from the circumstance that for mathematical entities belonging to a certain species, the possession of a certain property imposes a special character on their way of development from the basic intuition, and that from this special character of their way of development from the basic intuition, properties ensue which for classical mathematics are false. A striking example is the intuitionist theorem that a full function of the unity continuum, i.e. a function assigning a real number to every non-negative real number not exceeding unity, is necessarily uniformly continuous. (Brouwer <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0002">1964</xref>:79)</p></disp-quote></p></fn>
<fn id="FN0004"><label>4</label><p>Ons kan hier aan (relatief wederkerig uitsluitende) standpunte dink &#x2013; soos die klassieke meganistiese benadering (Eisenstein), die fisikalisme (neo-Darwinisme &#x2013; Huxley, Simpson, Dawkins, Bennett), die neo-vitalisme (Driesch, Reiner-Schubert Soldern, Sinnott, Heitler, Haas, Overhage, Stephen Meyer), die organismiese biologie (Von Bertalanffy en sy sisteem-teoretiese navolgers), die holisme (Smuts, Adolf-Meyer Abich), die panpsigisme (Theilhard de Chardin, Bernard Rensch), en die emergensie-evolusionisme (C Lloyd-Morgan, Alexander, Richard Woltereck, Bernhard Bavinck, Michael Polanyi, Jaap Klapwijk).</p></fn>
<fn id="FN0005"><label>5</label><p>Terloops kan daarop gewys word dat die Kambriese &#x2018;ontploffing&#x2019;, wat aanvanklik na raming 20 tot 40 miljoen jaar geduur het, tans op 5 tot 6 miljoen jaar bereken word. Volgens Erwin en Davidson (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0014">2002</xref>) kan geen enkele bekende evolusieteorie hiervan rekenskap gee nie. Voeg hierby die probleem van die ontstaan van biotiese informasie wat aan die wortel van talle ander erkende probleme gele&#x00EB; is:
<disp-quote><p>from the origin of new body plans to the origin of complex structures and systems such as wings, feathers, eyes, echolocation, blood clotting, molecular machines, the amniotic egg, skin, nervous systems, and multicellularity, to name just a few. (Meyer <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CIT0033">2013</xref> &#x2013; <italic>Prologue</italic> p. ix)</p></disp-quote></p></fn>
<fn id="FN0006"><label>6</label><p>Dink aan kontr&#x00EA;re teenstellinge soos logies &#x2013; onlogies; vriendelik &#x2013; onbeskof; spaarsaam &#x2013; vermorsend; en mooi &#x2013; lelik. Die onderliggende teenstelling tussen <italic>normgehoorsaam</italic> en <italic>antinormatief</italic> veronderstel toepaslike norme (beginsels) en beliggaam telkens verskillend gespesifiseerde voorbeelde van die goed-kwaadteenstelling.</p></fn>
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